l The most basic form of economic activity (why) －individuals or a countries can never produce everything they need
（最基本的經濟活動，還沒有貨幣就有交易。為何要交易？因為個人和國家都不能生產本身需要的每件東西。）
l Private property rights allow exchange. Exchange allows specialization. (Exchange is a condition for specialization.)
有私有產權才有交易。有交易才有專門化。（交易是專門化的條件。）
l specialization 專門化
Ø means concentration on producing particular goods/services (individuals /countries concentrate on producing what they are best at)
指專注生產某種商品／服務（個人／國家專注生產最擅長生產的，例如歌唱得好的便唱歌）
Ø rely on others to provide other goods/services (exchange must follow specialization→ why? →to satisfy the array of one’s needs )
倚靠他人生產其他商品／服務（專門化必須繼之以交易→為何？→專門化只生產一種產品，但我們的需要很多種）
Ø occurs at all levels → at individual, firm, regional and national levels (Individual, firms, region, countries/economies all can specialize.)
每個層面都可以發生專門化→在個人層面、在地區層面、在國家層面 （個人、廠商、地區、國家／經濟體都可以專門化）
Ø higher production levels allow specialization; specialization allows economics of scale; economics of scale may develop into diseconomics of scale because of coordination problems
要有較高生產水平才可以專門化，專門化可以產生規模經濟，規模經濟由於協調問題，又可以發展為規模不經濟
Ø total specialization (carry out one activity only, and acquire nearly all other goods/services from others)→common at individual and firm level)
全面專門化（只進行一種活動，幾乎其他所有商品／服務取自他人→在個人和廠商層面較常見）
Ø partial specialization (produce some (but not all) other goods/services)→common at regional and national levels
部分專門化→生產部分（而非全部）其他商品／服務）→在地區和廠國家層面較常見
Division of labour（分工）l a form of specialization of function
功能專門化的一種形式
l divide a work/production process into different parts (which use different skills/or require no skill)
將工作／生產程序分成多個部分（各部分需要不同技能／或者不需技能）
l (i) Labour can then be divided up.
勞工於是可以分配
(ii) Rather than doing all things in producing one good/service, each person can specialize in/concentrate on one part and become better at it (develop expertise)→ raise productivity/higher productivity.
一個人不須做盡商品／服務生產的全部事情，可以專門於／集中於一部分，因此可以做得更好（發展出專門知識）→提高生產力
(iii) Training becomes faster and easier.
訓練較易、較快
(iv) It can increase output for the same factor inputs
投入相同的生產因素，能得到較高產量
(v) It enable higher standard of living.
生活水準提高
(vi) Jobs becomes repetitive, demotivating, and alienating
工作重複、令人失去工作動力、異化
(vii) Solutions (a) use machines/robots to do simple jobs (b) multi-skilling
解決方案（a）使用機器／機械人做簡單工作（b）多種技能訓練
l Benefits of multi-skilling (a) easier coverage (b) wider knowledge means: (i) earlier correction of faults (ii) easier changes (iii) better motivation
多種技能訓練的好處（a）員工的知識更廣泛，因此：（b）安排替補工作較容易（ii）能較早改正失誤（iii）較易推行改變（iv）較佳工作動力（因為做得無咁悶）
